Journal of Global Social Work Practice, Volume 2, Number 1, May/June 2009
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The Development of an International Social Work Collaboration in Kenya: A Critical Analysis Globalization in the world necessitates that social work education in the U.S. integrate interdisciplinary international perspectives into curricula. This paper presents a case study of the development of an international collaboration between a university in Chicago and academic and community-based institutions in Nairobi, Kenya. Institutional support, relationship building, political and cultural contexts, resource inequities, reciprocity, historical and sociopolitical perspectives, and academic colonialism were identified as important contextual factors in the successful development of the collaboration. The paper uses a critical analysis paradigm to analyze the collaborative processes. Keywords: International social work, collaborations, partnerships, critical analysis Contents
Introduction Social, political, and economic globalization have become a fact in our world. The forces of globalization have a profound impact on the domestic policies and international relationships of all nations. Creative ideas and vast amounts of information flow freely across the globe. This global exchange provides opportunities for the social work profession in the U.S. to offer and benefit from an exchange of innovative social welfare policies and practices (Hokenstad & Midgley, 2004). Consequently, it is important for social work education in the U.S. to adopt a more international perspective. Social work education has begun to place more emphasis on cross-cultural and international content in the past twenty years (Asamoah, Healy, & Mayadas, 1997). The profession of social work and the phenomenon of globalization both dramatically increased during the course of the 20th century. As a result, the social work profession will need to start addressing international social issues in collaboration with international partners (Cornelius & Greif, 2005). Subsequently, Cornelius and Greif (2005) suggest that social work education programs, many of which are domestically focused, will need to internationalize curriculums to help meet escalating needs to address global issues. The task of internationalizing a social work education curriculum is difficult, most notably because of a lack of empirically-based models on how to successfully develop international academic partnerships (Johanson, 2004). This article presents the important factors that emerged from the development of a successful partnership between a U.S. academic social work program and two institutions in Nairobi, Kenya, one academic-based and the other community-based. This article will present a review of the literature on international partnerships, introduce the study abroad course that provided the context for the development of the international collaboration, and discuss the factors important to its success along with lessons learned. Finally, the paper will present the limitations to the conclusions drawn from the international collaborative experience. The literature informing the development of partnerships between social work programs from developing countries and Western social work academic programs consists mainly of articles presenting case studies outlining lessons learned. The articles present an array of important factors from institution-level processes to specific individual-level interactions. The amount of literature in this area is limited. The literature review presented here summarizes five such articles. In an article on developing collaborations between Western and African schools of social work, Asamoah and Beverly (1988) identify important areas for consideration. The authors emphasize the importance of understanding the historical context of the development of social welfare services in African countries. The authors also recommend developing several specific areas of collaboration: (1) curriculum planning and development, (2) levels of training, (3) development of field work, (4) development of indigenous teaching materials, (5) research, (6) funding, and (7) creating opportunities for mutual exchange. As lessons learned from their work, the authors also offer recommendations for minimizing problems among international collaborators. Primarily, the key objectives of the partnership must be clear to all parties involved. Is the partnership to be an exchange of knowledge or the development of a process? The answer will determine the scope of participation. Secondly, it may be necessary to establish a point person who has knowledge of the needs of the potential partner schools and who may coordinate collaborative efforts. Third, it is important to expand partnership efforts to include professional social work organizations or national social welfare councils in the host country. Fourth, Western partners may consider regional activities in order to maximize the participation of social work schools from other countries. Fifth, because non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are essential institutions in Africa and elsewhere, Western collaborators should consider developing partnerships with such organizations. Lastly, when developing collaborative research projects, partners must ensure that the studies are cleared by local research institutional review organizations whether through universities or governmental agencies. In an analysis of a North-South collaboration with Nicaragua's Universidad Centroamericana, Whitmore and Wilson (1997) apply structural and conjunctural analyses to evaluate the process of their collaboration. Structural analysis involves the "examination of the wider economic, social, and political structures which oppress people in both rich and poor countries and which are pervasive in the relationship between 'partners'" (p. 57). Conjunctural analysis requires the examination of the political climate of a collaboration to determine opportunities for development. Using these methods of analyses, the authors present four themes that emerged from their collaboration. The first is what the authors call "participation and control." Whitmore and Wilson found significant differences in decision-making style among the Canadian and Nicaraguan participants. Collective decision-making predominantly characterized the process used by the Nicaraguan institution, whereas the Canadians had a tendency to employ a hierarchal approach. Additionally, the authors recognized the tendency for Canadians to take over the process of the collaboration because of easy access to resources, which tended to foster a dependency relationship with their Nicaraguan counterparts. The authors present a second theme related to "time and timing." The collective decision-making process required attention to the need for adequate time to plan and careful attention to process. Long-term collaborations allow for the development of strong and trusting relationships among collaborators as well as an important opportunity to understand the context in Nicaragua. A third theme was identified as "South-South vs. North-South exchange." Over the course of their collaboration, the authors shifted their focus from facilitating only a Canadian-Nicaraguan collaboration to assisting other Latin American schools to build strong collaborations. A final theme to emerge is what the authors termed "methodology". Through reflection on the collaboration, the authors embraced a participator action research methodology, which is widely accepted throughout Latin America and has common assumptions to feminist approaches to research. The authors adopted this research methodology in order to further the development of collaborative research projects. An additional article presents another North-South social work academic collaboration in the Western Hemisphere. In the study, Boyle, Nackerud, and Kilpatrick (1999) describe a collaboration between the University of Georgia School of Social Work and the social work program at the University of Vera Cruz, Mexico. The four week exchange program brought twelve participants from Georgia to Mexico. The exchange program included cultural immersion, family home stays, language study, site visits to social service agencies, and the development of social work partnerships. The collaboration resulted in faculty from both institutions co-authoring a paper, exchanging technical assistance on a program evaluation project, and the development of a cultural competence measure. The authors report outcomes of the exchange project to be institutionalization of the project so that it occurs on an annual basis, enrichment of the personal and professional lives of all partners, and the development of a practicum experience for students in both programs. Carrilio and Mathiesen (2006) also present a case study of an international partnership involving U.S. and Mexican universities. The authors apply a Developmental Model of International Engagement (Mathiesen, Carrilio, Rasmussen, & Engstrom, 2004) to analyze the formation of their cross border collaboration. The model outlines the following cyclical steps: (1) identifying a need for engagement, (2) assessing resources and barriers, (3) setting goals, (4) developing an action plan, and (5) evaluating the engagement and activities. Overall, Carrilio and Mathiesen (2006) recognized a number of factors important to this paper. Institutional support and ownership was identified as a fundamental element to the success of the collaboration. Host institutions provide the necessary resources to make such partnerships happen. The authors also emphasized the importance of understanding the political context within which the partnership exists. This is especially pertinent for U.S.-Mexican cross cultural work. Language and cultural competence were additional factors important to this project. Faculty and students from both institutions recognized the need to improve language skills in order to enhance cultural competence. Carrilio and Mathiesen identified the need for greater reciprocity in the continual development of their international partnership. Collaborations need to avoid one-way exchanges dominated by the most powerful and privileged of the partners. Finally, the authors recognized the need to understand the host country context. U.S. participants need to approach collaborative work with flexibility, humility, and respect. They must be open to alternative methods of approaching problems and finding solutions. Cornelius and Greif (2005), in an exploratory study of the nature of collaborations among U.S. schools of social work and their international counterparts, presented a descriptive analysis of the characteristics of such collborations in a sample of twenty-six U.S. social work programs. The study found that a large majority of the schools engaged in recipricol faculty and student exchanges, and participated in joint research projects in the developing country. Additionally, the authors present a narrative description of two collaboration projects undertaken by the University of Maryland School of Social Work - one with the Rajagiri School of Social Science in Cochin, India, and one with the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Ghana. The article gives a broad outline of the developmental processes involved in these collaborations, as well as some lessons learned. First, the authors found that international partnerships can be impacted by significant international events, such as September 11, 2001, and the conflicts between India and Pakistan. These events required partners to adjust not only the logistics, but also the direction of the collaboration. Secondly, the authors identified the importance of individual efforts to build the necessary interpersonal relationships to make the collaborations a success. Finally, the authors discussed the challenges of bringing materials, such as computer hardware and software overseas particularly in light of the U.S. State Department's strict regulations for exporting materials. In a departure from the case study presentations of most of the literature on developing international partnerships, Razack (2002) offers a more critical analysis of the purpose, planning, and nature of international exchanges. At the core of Razack's critiques is the concern that U.S. social work programs, although well-intentioned, are continuing the practice of "professional imperialism", described as occurring "when western influences dominate developing local contexts" (p. 261). The author's critical paradigm informs his presentation of the factors necessary to prepare students for international field placements. Razack believes that students seeking internships in the developing South need to have the theoretical and practice knowledge that informs the social issues from the perspectives of the international partner. This understanding is predicated on knowledge about imperialism, colonialism, post-colonialism, and globalization, and how it impacts contemporay society of the host country. Such a critical understanding is a prerequisite for developing anti-imperialistic international field placements. The literature offers valuable perspectives on the development of North-South partnerships between social work academic institutions. The case studies point to the importance of understanding macro-level factors, such as the historical, social, and political contexts of the developing host nation, as well as the necessity of gaining support from the partners' respective institutions. The literature also illustrates the need to be cognizant of the micro issues at the interpersonal level. Language, decision-making, respect, humility, and patience are interpersonal processes that are crucial in the development of international partnerships. However, with the exceptions of Razack (2002), Whitmore and Wilson (1997), and, to some extent Carrilio and Mathiesen (2006), a significant omission in the literature is the lack of a critical analysis regarding the elements of power, hierarchy, resource inequities, and academic colonialism in the exchange process. This paper offers an additional case study of a newly developed partnership between DePaul Univeristy in Chicago and Tangaza College and Koinonia Community in Nairobi, Kenya. The collaboration originated within the context of the development of a graduate social work study abroad course. The critical factors identified from this ongoing partnership validate many cited in the literature. However, this paper integrates the above mentioned critical analysis advocated by Razack (2002) to serve as a lens through which to present the process of collaboration in the Kenya project. The DePaul University, Tangaza College and Koinonia Community International Exchange Project The Chicago-Nairobi collaboration was created within the context of an international interdisciplinary graduate study abroad course titled, "Kenya: Interdisciplinary Graduate Studies in Health, Social Welfare, and Development". The course began as an interdisciplinary project among three DePaul academic departments - Social Work, Nursing, and Public Service Management. The faculty traveled together to Nairobi on an initial planning trip in June 2006. The trip originated the international partnerships with Tangaza College and Koinonia Community, a community faith-based organization in Nairobi. The partnership with Tangaza College developed because of an existing formal agreement with DePaul University. Tangaza College and DePaul University offer a joint bachelor's degree program through DePaul's School of New Learning. It is offered in Nairobi. The exchange project sought to build upon this work. The partnership with Koinonia Community developed as a result of the DePaul faculty staying at a guest house run by the organization during this initial planning trip. The accommodations allowed DePaul faculty and the administration at Koinonia to get acquainted and exchange ideas in a meaningful way. This initial dialogue was seminal in the development of the current partnership. At the end of the six day planning trip, DePaul faculty solidified not only their interdisciplinary collegial relationship and vision for the study abroad course, but also the groundwork for the collaborative relationship with the Kenyan partners. After the initial trip, the exchange project continued to develop via email, Skype, and the occasional telephone calls. Although technology allowed for immediate communication, it was limiting in many ways. These methods of collaboration precluded the development of substantive collaborative relationships and detailed course planning. In order to develop the exchange program further, DePaul sponsored a second planning trip, sending DePaul faculty to Nairobi for seven days. This planning visit was absolutely necessary in order to deepen the collaborative relationships and to plan out the complicated details of the three week study abroad course. In addition to the formal planning sessions, DePaul faculty and partners from Tanagaza College and Koinonia Community bonded over meals, evenings out in Nairobi, and informal discussions. It was through these occasions that the partnerships evolved into a meaningful collaborative partnership. After the second visit and over the next eighteen months, partnership-building and course planning continued to develop through the use of technology. After months of planning and development, DePaul faculty brought twenty-three graduate students to Nairobi in December of 2007 for a three week short-term study abroad exchange with Tangaza College and Koinonia Community. The Kenya partnership was built around the study abroad course titled, "Kenya: Interdisciplinary Graduate Studies in Health, Social Welfare, and Development." Its purpose was to bring graduate students together from multiple disciplines for an international, collaborative experience focusing on the interrelationship of issues in the areas of health, social welfare, and development shared by Chicago and Nairobi. Another goal of the course was to bring DePaul and Tangaza students together for a mutually beneficial learning experience where they could share their lives as students and citizens of their respective countries. The goal of the project with respect to Koinonia Community was different. This collaboration was an opportunity for DePaul students to experience how a Kenyan non-profit organization develops and implements programs to address social problems in their society. Additionally, DePaul students contributed their skills and expertise to projects developed by Koinonia through short-term internships. A total of twenty-three students enrolled in the course. Eighteen (78%) of the students were female and five (22%) were male. Six (26%) of the students were African American, two (9%) were Asian American, and 17 (74%) were white. Five students (22%) were from the Master of Social Work (MSW) program. Nine (39%) students represented the School of Public Service and nine (39%) were nursing students. A total of 40 Tangaza Students participated in this exchange. Three DePaul faculty facilitated the course. The Nursing faculty member was a white female; the MSW faculty member was a white male; and the School of Public Service faculty member was a black male with dual Nigerian and Canadian citizenship. The course was offered in Nairobi, Kenya over three weeks during the 2007 December intercession term. Prior to departing, the faculty facilitated four pre-departure classes of three hours each. The goals of the sessions were to gain a historical and sociopolitical understanding of Kenya, to orient the students to the content of the course and logistics of the exchange program, and to allow students to bond with one another in an effort to create a more cohesive group. Tangaza College and Koinonia Community hosted different components of the exchange program. The primary goal of the collaborative effort was to develop mutually beneficial and sustainable partnerships based on respect and equality. Tangaza College hosted DePaul faculty and students for a day long event where three Tangaza faculty presented lectures and students engaged in a dialogue on issues that emerged from the lectures. The day ended with Tangaza hosting a dinner with live music. The evening event gave students and faculty from both institutions an opportunity to interact informally and to share and exchange ideas. The collaboration with Koinonia Community began with staff from the organization presenting four half day lectures on the following topics: Koinonia's history, mission, and structure, Kenyan history, the role of women in Kenya, community conflict resolution, and religious diversity in Kenya. During the second week, the student participated in three day internship projects where they worked with staff from the community-based programs funded by Koinonia. The DePaul students worked in programs offering support services to street children in an effort to find them safe environments to live. The students shadowed Koinonia staff as they administered the program services. The internships were developed and directed by the Koinonia administration so as to meet the needs of the host programs. The end of the exchange program culminated with a dinner and cultural evening of music and dance, celebrating the success of our first collaborative project. An important part of this study abroad course is allowing the faculty and students time for reflection on their experiences in Kenya. Time spent for reflection was created while the students were in Kenya and when they returned. After returning from Kenya, the DePaul faculty facilitated two three-hour classes where students could process their experiences. The classes took place one month after the return trip in order to give students adequate time to fully reflect on the project. The classes were also important for allowing students to reconnect with one another and provide evaluative feedback about the exchange program to faculty. The planning and facilitation of the Kenya program took approximately eighteen months. After two planning trips, numerous emails and meetings, three weeks in the country, and follow-up discussions with colleagues, ideas emerged about the critical factors necessary to develop a successful North-South partnership and exchange program. The discussion of these factors is presented below using a critical analysis framework that analyzes the North-South partnership, with an emphasis on issues of power, hierarchy, resource inequality, reciprocity, and the potential for academic colonialism. The primary function of this paradigm is to provide a lens through which Western social work institutions can systematically assess their role in the process of building international partnerships with institutions from developing nations. A number of important factors emerged from the collaborative process with our partners in Nairobi: (1) institutional support; (2) relationship building; (3) political and cultural challenges; (4) resource inequities; (5) reciprocity; (6) historical and sociopolitical perspectives; and (7) issues of academic colonialism. Although institutional support and relationship building may pertain to work that occurs between any two nations, political and cultural challenges, resource inequities, sociopolitical and historical perspectives, and academic colonialism are necessary factors that Western faculty need to consider when working with institutions from developing nations. Institutional support involves providing the vision, commitment, and resources to assist individuals in the development of international projects. Carrilio and Mathiesen (2006) recognize the importance of institutional support to the development and sustainability of international collaborations. Home institutions offer the essential financial support necessary to cover the cost of such collaborations. Multi-level support from DePaul University was an essential part of the successful development and implementation of the study abroad exchange program. Overall, DePaul University, like many universities, encourages the development of sustainable study abroad opportunities for students and avoids what is known as "academic tourism" - single trip programs to nations. DePaul faculty who facilitate study abroad courses must plan to return to the host nation a minimum of three times. The university's study abroad department offered essential logistical support for this course. Additionally, DePaul University had developed an existing formal collaboration with Tangaza College in the form of a shared degree program offered in Nairobi. The institutional support for this exchange program was seen as building on this existing collaboration. In addition to overall university support, it was essential to receive the support at the departmental level. Departmental chairs offered support for the course and provided the financial resources to facilitate the planning trips to Kenya. From the host nation's perspective, individual commitment from academic and community institutions is also a key element to ensure the success of an international collaboration (Cornelius & Greif, 2005). Although Koinonia Community had experience with developing exchange programs with Western organizations, the development of a collaboration with DePaul was a new occurrence for Tangaza College. The college's administration was initially hesitant to support this study abroad exchange program. DePaul faculty had to sensitively follow protocol and rely on key individuals within Tangaza to advocate for the collaboration. At the core of formal institutions coming together to build a partnership are the individuals who work to build the relationships that are necessary to facilitate the collaborations. Building relationships involves the development of common goals based on respect and trust developed over time. Cornelius and Grief (2005) recognize the importance of individual efforts in building these relationships. A challenge in the development and facilitation of the Kenya exchange program was building and maintaining the collaborative relationships from half a world away. The DePaul faculty made two planning trips to Kenya. The primary goals of the planning trips were to identify collaborating partners and to facilitate the development of positive working relationships. The planning trips were short, lasting only a week to ten days. The short duration of the visits required that faculty make efficient and effective use of the time in Kenya. In addition to formal meetings, they engaged individual partners in informal discussions. The faculty were very successful in making connections during these trips. However, the real challenge involved continuing these relationships from across the Atlantic Ocean. Building effective collaborative relationships with partners in Kenya meant that DePaul faculty and their Kenyan partners had to deal with the communication challenges. Advances in telecommunication technology have made international communication easy and affordable. Cell phones, email, and video chat programs like Skype allow for the transmission of communication like never before. Although the benefits of telecommunication technology are dramatic, they are not without problems. Time zone issues, limits on non-verbal communication, and limits on the understanding of cultural aspects of language all posed challenges to transnational communication through technology. These limitations made planning trips essential. Political and Cultural Challenges Two interrelated challenges involved in the development of this international collaboration were navigating the political environments and understanding cultural contexts. The political challenges involved understanding the hierarchal power structures of the Kenyan institutions within the context of Kenyan culture. The faculty and individual partners in Kenya each were representative of larger academic and community institutions. The institutions have hierarchies and power structures that can make developing collaborative relationships challenging. Essential to negotiating the political pitfalls of large academic and community institutions was the development of trusted allies within these institutions who supported the collaboration and could advise the faculty on how to best proceed with institutional protocols. Faculty visits to Kenya during the course planning phase were important opportunities to navigate the political environment of the partner institutions. Equally important to understanding and navigating the political environment, faculty also must address the cultural challenges. Tunney (2002) found that it is culturally challenging to be an educator abroad since the role calls for an adaptation to three culture environments - the culture of the social work profession, the culture of the host, and the culture of the visitor. Understanding local needs and issues while also promoting social work's professional identity were themes that developed out of Tunney's analysis. The themes were imperative to overcoming cultural challenges as a visiting instructor. Tunney also questions the validity of "cultural competence," in which one can gain knowledge about other cultures that can then be directly applied to cross-cultural interactions. It is suggested that going into foreign situations with the "mind of a learner rather than an expert" is a more preferable approach than possessing a general knowledge base regarding "cultural competence" (Tunney, 2002). In many ways negotiating the cultural challenges was more difficult for faculty than the politics. Tunney's (2002) assertion that academicians should approach culturally different environments as learners and not as experts was a primary strategy in dealing with the cultural challenges in Kenya. The DePaul faculty approached the visits to Kenya with humility and respect. They listened and observed first and offered our perspective second. The development of trusting relationships, characterized by an honest and open dialogue, contributed greatly to the faculty's understanding of the culture of our collaborating partners. An additional factor in the development of international partnerships is the recognition of the significant resource inequities that exist between North-South collaborating partners. Dominelli (2004) acknowledges that promoters of international social work have to address various issues that may arise if they do not want to promulgate disproportionate relations between educators and practitioners from "high and low income countries." The primary goal of the exchange effort was to develop mutually beneficial and sustainable partnerships based on respect and equality. However, during the planning and teaching of the study abroad course, the DePaul faculty were very cognizant of the apparent inequities between resource rich DePaul University and our resource limited Kenyan partners. At times during the development of the collaboration, the resource disparity created hesitancy on the part of administrators of Tangaza College because the institution's administrators could not afford to provide equal funds to support events during the exchange program. DePaul faculty were sensitive to the degree to which the university's financial resources created a power imbalance in the collaborative relationship. They were careful not to allow this imbalance to overtly dominate the dynamics of the collaboration. For example, faculty were careful to negotiate with Tangaza's administration a share of the costs that they could afford. DePaul University and its students covered most of the cost associated with the three week study abroad course and compensated our partners fairly for their contributions to the exchange program. The issue of resource inequities is interrelated to the degree to which there is reciprocity among the international partners. Reciprocity involves the development of mutual exchanges whereby individuals have the opportunity to travel to their partner's country. Resource inequities can easily lead to one-way exchanges where the financially advantaged institutions continuously bring faculty and students to the developing nation without reciprocity. Carrilio and Mathiesen (2006) assert that international social work should be a "two-way street", where the collaboration should involve, as much as possible, an equal exchange of people and ideas. Asamoah and Beverly (1988) also emphasize the importance of mutual exchange. Schools of Social Work in the U.S. need to discover innovative ways to bring social workers from developing nations to the U.S to foster more mutual exchanges (Midgley, 1990; Razack, 2002). U.S. social workers can learn much from colleagues practicing in developing nations, such as innovative plans of assistance with low budgets, community development as a tool for working with the impoverished, community mobilization to aid in social problems, and experience in dealing with catastrophic disasters (Midgley, 1990). It was evident to the DePaul faculty that our partners at Tangaza College and Koinonia Community were unable to sustain the financial cost of coming to Chicago. In an effort to be innovative and establish greater reciprocity in their collaboration with Tangaza College, DePaul faculty sought and received funding to bring a scholar from the college to DePaul University for a two week exchange program in April 2008. The scholar conducted three lectures on important East African issues and engaged in dialogues with faculty and staff from several academic departments. Additionally, faculty from DePaul's MSW program provided technical assistance in the development of Tangaza's emerging Masters Degree Program. DePaul faculty viewed this exchange as a small step to increasing reciprocity with our partners in Kenya. Because of the limited scope of this South to North exchange program and its cost, Tangaza College students are unable to come to DePaul. A long-term goal of this collaboration is to eventually offer an opportunity for Kenyan students to study at DePaul University. Historical and Sociopolitical Perspectives Knowledge about the historical and sociopolitical contexts of the host country is vital for faculty working to develop international partnerships with individuals and institutions in developing nations (Asamoah & Beverly,1988). This involves developing an in-depth knowledge of how historical events shape the contemporary society of a nation. Developing nations have histories with colonial nations that have adversely impacted their society. Often colonial powers have engaged in atrocities resulting in the death and enslavement of indigenous people. Historical colonial policies continue to impact the contemporary sociopolitical events of developing nations. Razack (2002) suggests that educational institutions establish a permanent setting for discussing the residue of colonialism and imperialism in relation to working and studying in an international setting. During the process of course development and prior to offering the study abroad course, DePaul faculty read numerous books and articles that documented Kenya's history. The literature was also included as required reading for students in the course. It was important to include literature written by Kenyans to ensure that voices of those experiencing the colonial history were represented. Additionally, DePaul faculty invited an East African scholar who spoke to the class about the colonial history of Kenya during a pre-departure session. The background provided by the historical and sociopolitical writings provided a context from which to analyze the hierarchal power structures of our partner institutions in Kenya. As the DePaul participants developed collaborations with Tangaza College and Koinonia Community, they began to see vestiges of the colonial history. For instance, all of the top administrative staff of the college are of European and American citizenship, whereas many of the associate directors, faculty, and students are native Kenyan. Also, the executive director of Koinonia Community is Italian and his associate directors and staff are all Kenyan. Although we saw very positive relationships between Kenyans and non-Kenyans within the organizations, the power structure and dynamics were clearly evident. This understanding was important for DePaul faculty as we negotiated with Tangaza College and Koinonia Community about the details of our collaboration. Romero (1977) describes academic colonialism as "the selective imposition of intellectual premises, methods, concepts, and related organizational styles on a subordinate group" (p.5). Other scholars (Hardiman & Midgley, 1982; Midgley, 1981) use the term social work imperialism. The author prefers academic colonialism because it addresses the specific context of the academic partnership, and recognizes that there is potential for Western schools of social work to impose teaching and research methodologies on academic partners in the South. Diminishing the influence of academic colonialism is an essential task for faculty who seek to develop international partnerships with organizations from developing nations. To this end, faculty need to explore and understand attitudes of superiority and privilege that may lead to them dominating the collaboration (Razack, 2002; Gray, 2005). Additionally, faculty need to approach international collaborations with a humble perspective and intentionally avoid being imperialistic (Razack, 2002; Gray, 2005). Asamoah and Beverly (1988) advocate for an 'emic' approach which "emphasizes a definition of need within the context of the meanings assigned by the local population to such concepts as mental health and illness, deviance, social problems, social development, progress, etc." (p. 179-180). Additionally, Whitmore and Wilson (1997) demonstrated their sensitivity to academic colonialism by being open to accepting a participatory action research methodology advocated by their Nicaraguan academic partners. The historical perspective that DePaul faculty studied prior to offering the study abroad course helped them to be sensitive to issues of academic colonialism. However, there were times when they observed its intrusion into their attitudes toward Kenya as they asserted their superiority and privilege. For instance, the DePaul nursing faculty member expressed surprise when the Kenyan Minister of Health informed her that she would have to register all nurses and nursing students with the Kenyan government prior to entering the country. She was operating under the assumption that she and her nursing students could just arrive in Kenya without notifying government institutions. Another example occurred where DePaul faculty assumed that an organization would welcome two students for an internship. They were surprised when they had to quickly retrieve the students after the administrator refused to host them. Upon reflection of these experiences, it was clear that the faculty held assumptions of privilege and attempted to impose an educational agenda. Although this international exchange project was carefully planned and implemented, reflections on the experience do illuminate some important lessons learned. First, given resource inequities, how equitable was the collaboration? DePaul faculty attempted to develop a collaboration that was on equal footing. However, they did not assess the extent to which their Kenyan partners perceived the collaboration as an equal exchange of knowledge and resources. DePaul faculty should have asked directly for input from their partners on this issue. Secondly, it is important to begin an international partnership with modest, feasible, and achievable goals with an eye on sustainability. Aspects of the exchange program had to be scaled back because they were unrealistic. For instance, the goal of bringing Kenyan students to DePaul University was quickly set aside because of costs. Instead, they were able to secure funding to bring one Tangaza College scholar to Chicago. Finally, the process of developing an international collaboration requires persistence, hard work, and careful planning. Numerous challenges and set backs emerge during the planning process. All partners need to dedicate the time and effort to work through the obstacles that come up. There are a number of limitations to this case study that require caution when generalizing the findings of this paper to similar international North-South collaborations. First, the conclusions presented from this experience are based on a single international collaborative project. The principles outlined in the discussion section may or may not apply to all such projects but are presented as factors to consider in the development of any international social work project involving western institutions and those from developing nations. A second limitation pertains to the knowledge of the impact of the project on our Kenyan partners. The author did not collect information that documented the experiences and possible benefits of this project on the faculty and students of Tangaza College and the staff of Koinonia Community. Additionally, the author did not collect information on the direct benefits experienced by the DePaul students. The focus of this paper was to examine the central process oriented factors facing the DePaul's faculty in developing the necessary partnerships to begin the collaborative process. Future studies of international partnerships should collect systematic data on the experiences of partners from the developing nations. Through the process of developing and offering the study abroad course, it became necessary to understand the contextual factors that impact the development of the collaborative relationship with the partners in Kenya. This understanding required historical knowledge of Kenya and how it impacts the contemporary social, political, and cultural experience. It also required that participants understood the role of power and privilege that were self-evident in the relationship building process. The DePaul faculty recognized the resource inequities and the need for reciprocity while trying to simultaneously understand and limit the forces of academic colonialism. These processes required a significant amount of research and reflective introspection on the part of the faculty. Additionally, at the core of this successful interdisciplinary international collaboration was the development of genuine and trusting relationships among partners. 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Acknowledgement: The author would like to thank the administration, faculty, and staff of Tangaza College and Koinonia Community in Nairobi, Kenya for their contributions to this international partnership and for an immensely enriching collaboration, both personal and professional. |