Journal of Global Social Work Practice, Volume 4, Number 2, November/December 2011
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Korean Social Work Practitioners: Perceptions and Attitudes towards Globalization For this study, 112 questionnaires were completed by Korean social work practitioners focusing on eliciting perceptions and attitudes towards globalization. The results demonstrate that in general, Korean social workers understand the importance and significance of a local/global nexus as it relates to social work practice. Keywords: Korea, globalization, social work, education, practice perceptions of. Contents Research on Social Work Practitioners' Awareness of Globalization History of Social Welfare and Social Work Education in Korea Implications for Social Work Practice Findlay and McCormack (2005) note that, "...if social workers are to practice effectively in the 21st century then social work practice itself needs to be conceptualized beyond the confines of nation-state, as influences outside this realm are increasingly being acknowledged as having some influence on local issues" (p. 124). Academia supports the assumption that social work as a profession is emerging out of a global context and is having a profound impact on practice competencies (Sewpaul & Jones, 2005; Lyons, Manion, & Carlsen, 2006; Dominelli, 2010; Hong & Song, 2010; Healy, 2001; Pugh & Gould, 2000; Midgley 1997; Powell & Geoghegan, 2005; Findlay & McCormack, 2005, 2007; Rotabi, Gammonley, Gamble, & Weil, 2007; Nagy & Falk, 2000; and Gray & Fook, 2004). Unfortunately, while social work scholars have identified the importance of exploring globalization (the local-global nexus), they have for the most part, failed in any thorough way to research its multiple meanings and develop practice strategies to ameliorate its negative consequences. A case in point, which is central to this paper, is the lack of research related to Korean social work practitioners' perceptions and attitudes towards globalization. An understanding of contemporary perceptions of Korean social work practitioners towards globalization can be useful from both domestic and international research perspectives. Having identified the importance of globalization as it relates to social work education and practice, it is important to assess potential gaps existing between practitioner perceptions of globalization and the globalization phenomenon itself. In a thorough review of the literature, it was discovered that such gaps have not been assessed and may reflect a broader problem. While some social work scholars have devoted themselves to addressing social work as an interconnected and global issue, most have not dealt with social problems beyond their immediate domestic realities. This led Midgley (1997), one of the most prolific scholars writing about this issue, to express concern of whether or not the social work academy truly understands the significance of globalization's impact upon the profession as a whole. In fact, research on globalization and social work is not broadly distributed amongst the profession's numerous academic journals. Most of the literature on social work and globalization almost exclusively is located in two journals. They are the International Social Work and the Journal of Global Social Work Practice. Nonetheless, these two journals have expanded the debate concerning globalization and its relationship to social work practice and education. They are aiding the nature and level of the international dialogue that exists within the social work academy. Within the academy, it can be argued that there are two very different approaches to globalization. In version one we all start to speak the same language and all adopt the same dominant culture's values, and by extension, the dominant culture's approach to social work. The second approach is that we share between us the fullness and diversity of the human condition, that some cultures will perform certain tasks better than another, and we should learn from each other through dialogue, listening and speaking with mutual respect. There is no human group that cannot tell us something. By extension, this involves insights into not only social work but social dynamics and the preservation of healthy communities, families and individuals wherever this is possible. This second approach is one that appears to be gaining most support. Research on Social Work Practitioners' Awareness of Globalization To date, no empirical research has been conducted on assessing practitioners' awareness of globalization relative to Korean social work aside from this study. In fact, an exhaustive literature review of Western source material revealed only two empirical studies of practitioners' awareness of globalization conducted in the past three decades. The first was conducted in the United States by Kondrat and Ramanathan (1996) and the second was completed in Australia by Findlay & McCormack (2005). Both studies suggest a need to develop professional awareness and practice strategies applicable to globalization on a local and global scale. Perhaps the more important of the two studies is from Kondrat and Ramanathan (1996). Their research reveals insight into social workers' attitudes towards the impact of globalization on social work practice and education, and highlights the need for an international/global perspective. They hypothesized that global "shrinking" was a phenomenon that increasingly affects domestic practices. Concurrent to this author's study, they sought to identify the relative ease with which social work practitioners could realize the impact of international/global events on local practice and the relevance global perspective has on social work practice. Nearly ten years after Kondrat and Ramanathan published their findings, Findlay and McCormack (2005), who employed a similar approach, found their sample of Australian social workers to be more aware of global issues (and the related impact that globalization had on daily practice) than the group of American practicum instructors that were the focus of Kondrat and Ramanathan's earlier work. Though they do not speculate on cultural or regional differences between the two groups, the authors suggest that the heightened awareness of globalization from their sample may be a result of the topic's rise in popularity over time. However, it is difficult to make this statement with any certainty as both studies used non-random sampling and thus no generalizations can be made. Limitations of social work education in South Korea In part, the apparent failure of the social work academy to thoroughly research issues pertaining to globalization, social work education, and practice may be related to the nature of the globalization debate itself. As Dominelli (2010) notes, there is no agreed upon definition of globalization. One of the most significant problems when one engages the academic debate on globalization across disciplines as Held and McGrew (2002) note: "Within the academy no singular account of globalization has gained orthodoxy" (p. 2). Several competing theories are still vying for dominance to date. In general, this has resulted in academic divisions within the social work literature specifically, and the social science literature in general. At this stage such divisions may be viewed as being largely counter- productive. Although theoretical debates have their place in all areas of social science, the world faces pressing social issues that need to be addressed. In a field of research where debate is muddled by conceptual ambiguity it is understandable why researchers may approach the globalization debate with caution. Since there is a global context with which social workers are contending, both students and practitioners require a much broader-based education. There is a need to be educated to act and learn in a global environment. At the very least, we must be better able to exchange ideas, to begin a more open dialogue between colleagues domestically and internationally, enabling us to learn from each other unhindered by hegemonic thinking or preconceptions concerning globalization. This requires the inculcation of more critical reasoning and creative thinking into the heart of social work education (Hong & Song, 2010; Yip, 2004). Certainly it requires social workers to think globally and act locally. Globalization in South Korea South Korea, also known as the Republic of Korea and henceforth referred to as "ROK," has continuously been subject to a process of profound social transformation. The ROK is a nation that has been deeply influenced by globalization for over a century. On a positive note, globalization has enabled the rapid increase in living standards especially during the past four decades. However, it is also leading to income inequality and an increasing number of impoverished immigrants. Within a rapidly evolving geo-political, social, cultural, and economic context, ROK social workers are facing new social problems that cannot be fully understood without acknowledging the effects of globalization. Nagy and Falk (2000, p. 49), state that globalization is having, "a dramatic impact on the social work profession and on the educational needs of students preparing for this profession." This position is also supported by Polack, when he notes that, "The current globalization of the economy requires that social workers broaden their horizons and view many domestic social justice issues within a global framework" (Polack, 2004, p. 287). Even though their focus is not on the ROK, it is nonetheless relevant to the problems facing Korean social workers. All social workers, including those practicing in Korea, should seek to broaden their awareness of the underlying causes of local problems shaped by global circumstances. Immigration Another case in point for Korean social workers pertains to marriage immigration issues. Marriage immigration in the ROK primarily involves the marriage of younger South-East Asian brides (mostly from China, Vietnam and Taiwan and in their early 20's) to older Korean males (35 to 45) who are residing in rural areas. The brides are selected from catalogues. Problems that have been identified by the Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare include forced cultural assimilation as well as verbal and physical abuse. It has been estimated that as many as 47 % of these so called "Picture Brides" are subject to marital violence, isolation and alienation in the rural communities where they reside (Han Young In, 2010). Also, the problem of how to integrate the so-called 'mix-race children' into the rural communities that are primarily comprised of homogenous populations is of growing concern to the Ministry of Health & Welfare. Finally, the majority of these families are relatively worse off economically when compared to the population as a whole. Generally speaking, farmers tend to be less affluent in Korea, and its rural areas generally receive less visible exposure from other forms of globalization. This creates a unique set of social challenges. However, the underlying global issues, such as the international distribution of wealth, are rarely addressed by academics and policy-makers alike. (Hong & Song, 2010). If this problem were assessed from a broader global perspective it would be fairly self-evident that marriage immigration is a result of the economic hardships that compel people to move from one country to another. The need for understanding this issue in a broader global context is highlighted by Asamoah, Healy, and Mayadas (1997). They encourage social workers worldwide to look beyond domestic borders at changes around the globe, such as migration, that have created new global-local contexts for social work practice. Such factors have resulted in the need for new social work competencies as social problems that are faced by both developing and developed countries alike that result from either the direct or indirect impact of political, economic and social decision making of other countries (p. 390). History of Social Welfare and Social Work Education in Korea It is estimated that there are 1,700 Schools of Social Work around the globe in 150 countries, (Whittington, 2000). The International Association of Schools of Social Work has 150 members from 40 countries with 7 members from Korea. Taken at face value, these numbers are impressive. But intellectually, the "global academy" of social work faces many fundamental questions, which discount its relevance and influence. Nonetheless, there is a cohesive value structure since they share a common core set of beliefs, in spite of pursuing different means to uphold social work's core values. While social work education and practice have evolved in consideration of many social, political and economic circumstances in various parts of the world, at its core are values that have been inherited from the West. For example, contemporary social work education in the ROK was modeled from Western Christian missionaries. Chosun Dynasty Social welfare provision in Korea, albeit in its pre-modern form, date back thousands of years. For example, six hundred years ago, in the Chosun Dynasty (1392-1910), pre-modern Korea had laws protecting the rights of orphans and widows. In the Great Codex, which recorded the actions of all the Chosun rulers, mention is made of regular royal gifts to the "Four Poor" or destitute: widows, orphans, the handicapped and the elderly (Kim 1993). Most of the cost of social work was privatized and carried out by individuals or local communities, especially in the case of orphans and widows. For example, children were taken in by respected members of society as foster child, adoptee, servant or slave. In Seoul, the state created the equivalent to a modern-day emergency receiving home, the Chaesaengwon which would be the equivalent of emergency foster care services today. Buddhist monasteries, many of them located in rural areas, also provided many social services. (Annals of the Chosun Dynasty, 2005) Social welfare education presumably existed as a part of the general Confucian and Buddhist education systems that co-existed during the Chosun Dynasty. The Confucian emphasis on relationships between members of society and the Buddhist concern with personal spiritual health must have created a foundation based on which lay social workers, such as teachers, monks and other respected members of society, could perform their social roles. The collapse of the Chosun Dynasty was engineered by the Japanese government, and from 1910 to 1945, Korea along with Taiwan, were directly incorporated into the Japanese Empire, albeit as an unequal and often rebellious constituent. The Japanese colonial period marked a profound shift in Korean society, adopting modern forms of administration, social organization, technology and a capitalist economic system. At the same time many traditional social institutions were eliminated, disrupting Korea's indigenous social development. Christian Missionaries in Korea It is during this period of profound change that Christian missionary activity became more prominent. Although Catholicism reached Korea during the 15th century, it was harshly suppressed by the Chosun authorities. Catholic social work, in the form of care for orphaned children, started in 1864. In 1885, the first Christian orphanages were founded in Seoul and Daegu (Roh, 2003). The growing Christian community in the ROK gradually started to play a more prominent role in the provision of social welfare services and in 1947, the School of Christian Social Work at Ewha Woman's University in Seoul became the first institution to provide modern social work education (Kim Sung Yee, 2005 p.175-182) Thus the history of Korean social welfare, even in pre-modern times, is one of adapting and incorporating foreign ideas into the Korean body of knowledge, be they Buddhist, Confucian, Christian or Western secularism. Given this tradition, it could be argued that the globalization of Korean social work education is nothing new. Perhaps it is the Western countries that now have to come to terms with the ideas of non-Western societies, such as Korea, regarding their social work practices. Again, the first School of Social Work in Korea was founded in 1947 at Ehwa Women's University in Seoul as the Department of Christian Social Work. This was following the liberation from Japanese Colonial rule in 1945. This allowed for the active and open development of Christian charitable organizations, which had been previously suppressed by the colonizing forces. However, since its inception this effort has been complicated by methodological problems and the ROK's turbulent history. The methodological problems were linked to social work's Western ideological base with its roots in Christian values. Such emergent conflicts were related to whether or not such Christian values were consistent with the traditional Neo-Confucian family values of Korean society, values that were already blended with Buddhist concepts of charity and reincarnation. The Western-educated and emancipated women of Ehwa Women's University were in many cases the total antithesis of patriarchal Confucian Korean family values. Also, the emerging elite of the new Republic of Korea was largely American-oriented and the United States served as a model (and the most important sponsor) in many areas of the newly formed state including health and social welfare. During this period of American involvement, it was clear that some concepts of Western culture, particularly the adoption of non blood-related adoptees, were not plausible for Koreans at that time. Americanization of Social Welfare Education Perhaps more important was the fact that the Korean War created an immediate and urgent need for social work, and there was a limited amount of time available for theoretical discussions. This was related to the fact that in the relatively poor agricultural part of the peninsula there emerged a post-war society with millions of refugees from the North, war orphans, and a displaced population under an authoritative regime that was not prepared or economically able to offer adequate health care or social aide. At the university level, this demand led to the creation of the Department of Social Work at Seoul National University, following curriculum proposed by Professor Kidneigh of the University of Minnesota, School of Social Work (Kidneigh, 1955). Projects to rebuild Seoul National University between 1954 through 1962 involved the University of Minnesota, which assisted in nation-building and knowledge development, sponsored directly by the US Secretary of State. (University of Minnesota, http://www.umn.edu ) Proximity to the American model of social welfare education was a logical outcome of the post-war situation in which urgent help was offered mainly by foreign organizations and social workers (for example, the Korea Association of Voluntary Agencies, and the Holt Foundation). Because the need at that time was closely related to the urgent post-war care of orphaned children, and 85% of the social welfare institutions were designed for this most urgent task (Koo Jaheon, 1970; Kim & Henderson, 2008). Formally educated social workers made up only 3.4% of personnel at these institutions (Yi Hye Gyeong & Nam Chan Seob, 2005). This situation changed with rapid economic development under authoritative regimes, when a combination of events occurred: foreign organizations retreated, economic growth increased, and new legislation was enacted requiring professionally-trained social workers to manage and staff social welfare institutions in Korea. With the advent of the Social Welfare Work Law (1970) (Kim, Sung Yee & Kim No Eun. 2009 p.175-182) the need, and possibility for developing social work education arose. Current Status of Social Welfare Education in South Korea A changing awareness of social work education was mirrored by establishing the first Ph.D. in Social Work. It was initiated at Seoul National University in 1979, but the number of programs increased rapidly. Due to their economic success, the number of social work programs increased from 9 program with 761 students in 1970 to 22 programs with 5,100 students in 1985. Growing attention of the state combined with the democratization and diversification of social work resulted in the creation of many new academic programs. By 2007, there were 340 programs affiliated with social work, social welfare, and family welfare, comprising a total of 50,000 students. To date, every leading Korean university has a School of Social Work. ( Noble, Henrickson, & Han Young In, 2010) This study was undertaken to ascertain a pressing issue with regard to the lacuna in general social work education and practice. The study seeks to (a) fill the gap in knowledge and (b) offer insight into how globalization is perceived by social work practitioners in the ROC as well as their attitudes towards globalization. To achieve this task, research was conducted with social workers in Korea utilizing a research survey tool developed by Findlay and McCormack (2005)*. The data presented in the Results section lists the questions that were used in this study, which is exploratory in nature. No other quantitative studies to date have been completed on this topic within the ROK. Sample Selection The Korean participants of this study included social work practitioners who are employed at a number of NGOs as well as government departments with a social welfare mandate. In total the author was able to survey 112 respondents from Korea. The author employed both a convenience and snowball sampling methods in the study. Respondents were surveyed over a two month period, from February through March of 2011. Research Design For this study the author utilized a survey research tool initially developed by Findlay and McCormack (2005) and discussed in their article entitled, "Globalisation and social work: A snapshot of Australian practitioners' views." Findlay and McCormack's instrument was designed to measure globalization knowledge and assess practitioners' beliefs about the importance of global knowledge for social work practice. Findlay and McCormack based the design of their research tool on a similar prior study of United States social workers perceptions and attitudes toward globalization published by Kondrat and Ramanathan in 1999. The instrument as indicated by Findlay and McCormack (2005) was assessed in a focus group comprised of Australian social workers. In this study, participants were asked to respond to survey items related to global issues, global policies, cross-cultural exposure, education, and practice. The questions were related to the following: (a) whether social workers believe globalization impacts upon the people with whom they work; (b) how social workers rate their ability to identify a link between local and global issues; (c) how relevant they consider a global perspective is to social work; (d) what factors influence social workers' perceptions of globalization; (e) whether they believe the social work education prepared them to understand the global-local nexus; and (f) how they feel about education for social work practice relating to international and global issues. Furthermore, in order to add clarity to the questionnaire, definitions were provided for all key terminology. The survey was translated into Korean, cross-checking the accuracy of meaning and veracity of intent with a focus group of Korean social workers. All of the respondents' answers were in Korean. Later, it was translated back into English to verify the contents. Data Processing and Statistical Analysis These ordinal level data was analyzed using SPSS, Version 18, to produce mainly descriptive data. A composite of the three questions was used to construct the level of Globalization and Social Work Practice Index and Relevance of Globalization to Social Work Practice. The reliability indicator, Cronbach's a, is above 0.7, which is usually regarded as being statistically reliable. Profile of Respondents In total, 112 professional social workers from Korea completed the survey. The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 65 (M = 35.2, SD = 7.00). A total of 71% of the respondents were female and with 83% having completed an undergraduate degree in social work. Table 1 Profile of Respondents
Korean Social Workers' Awareness of Globalization Table 2 Respondents Level of Agreement with Statements the Global/Local Nexus
Three questions rated Korean social workers' levels of awareness of globalization, as detailed above. The first question asked respondents about their awareness of the relationship between global issues and local practice; the second question asked about their level of awareness regarding a relationship between global policies and Korea's national policies and the third question asked about an awareness of the impact of Korea's national policies on citizens of other countries. Results of the first question indicated that approximately 76.8% partially or totally agreed with the statement indicating a high level of awareness. Yet in the remaining two questions Korean social work respondents appeared more evenly split on their ability to discern the interconnectedness of local and global policies: almost 4 out of 10 (39.3%) were unable to clearly make this connection while 4 out of 10 (42%) respondents were able to clearly make a linkage between the impact of Korean national policies on other countries. Relevance of Globalization to Social Work Practice Table 3 Globalization has an impact on the Clients/Community I work with
Further, three questions elicited social work practitioners' opinions regarding how relevant they believed a global perspective is to social work practice. The first question asked respondents about their level of agreement with the impact it has on the clients/community they work with. The second inquired about the relevance globalization has to their field of practice and the third asked about whether or not they felt social work had a role to play in dealing with global issues. The results are summarized in Tables 3-5. The majority, 93%, of respondents agreed or agreed strongly with the fact that global issues had an impact on the clients or community they worked with. In terms of the second question regarding globalization's relevance to practice, 64% of Korean social work respondents felt that it was relevant or extremely relevant. A smaller percentage, 16% felt that it had no relevance at all. The third 'relevance' question asked social workers how often they used global policies to inform their practice. Examples were provided to ensure students clearly understood the question: for example, the United Nations Charter on the Rights of the Child. Table 4 Globalization Relevance to Practice
Table 5 Social Work Has a Role to Play in Dealing with Global Issues
Table 6 Utilization of Global Polices in His/Her Practice
Individual Factors and Globalization The survey asked some additional questions of the respondents' individual interest and their support for globalization and global practice. The first of these questions asked respondents whether they had a personal interest in international and global issues. Almost 60% of the respondents indicated this was very true or true. Yet, 4 out of 10 indicated either neutrality to this statement or not very true as shown in Table 7. A final measure of globalization regarding whether or not the respondents considered themselves to be global citizens was asked. This measure evaluated the social worker's commitment to the issue of globalization, asking: Do you consider yourself to be a global citizen? The majority of respondents, six out of ten or (59%), provided positive responses. Table 7 Personal Interest in International and Global Issues
Table 8 I Identify Myself as a Global Citizen
These findings clearly reveal a lively interest in globalization on the part of ROK social work practitioners: over half the respondents saw the relevance of globalization to their profession. However, it also reveals lower scores for the uptake of global policies and practices, and their adoption even on an experimental basis by the social worker. It is one thing to be aware, but another to try them. This article also establishes a baseline for some key issues related to perceptions and attitudes of Korean social workers. However, this study endeavors to measure beliefs rather than behaviors and clearly indicates some direction in curriculum development for social work education and practice. Perhaps the underutilization of more universal standards can be attributed to cultural dilemmas. It would appear that the pull of culture is strong. Koreans, raised in the Confucian ethic regard the family as the unit of survival and nurturance. The damaged individual needs to be restored to such a context, even if his/her natural family is not available. A surrogate family needs to be found. American and most Western social workers believe that with the assistance of a "helping stranger" who has studied his particular case and can offer counseling and advice, the individual should rely on inner resources, self-awareness and independence to make the best possible use of the isolation forced upon him/her. Implications for Social Work Practice The broader implication for social work practice relates to the idea that we can learn from each other. Social work is not a set of universal principles that can be applied across the board to every case. Social work depends on what the culture of a country regards as "natural," "good," and the ideal state to which the client should be restored so as to function "normally." The ROK sees the disadvantaged client as lacking a family unit which s/he can trust, and so, tries to devise a substitute. America, Australia and Western-oriented countries see the disadvantaged client as being forced prematurely to fend for him/herself when there is no real alternative except to become self-reliant during the transition to full adulthood. This process is regarded as one that should be encouraged by insights concerning "mental health" and lessons in autonomy. When these two opposed premises confront each other, it is hard to combine a practice derived from one premise and attach it to a practice derived from another. It is for this reason that another culture's social work practice fascinates but resists incorporation into another culture. Yet, real learning can take place from opposing points of view. Conclusion This pilot study follows on the limited prior research conducted by Findlay and McCormack (2005), as well as Kondrat and Ramanathan, (1996). Endeavoring to reach across cultures, it is the first empirical study in Korea to assess social work practitioners' perceptions and attitudes toward globalization. The results of this study cannot be generalized beyond this sample because a convenience sampling was utilized. However, the study provides a first glimpse into what, for the most part, has been terra incognita. It seems, in general, a majority of social workers understand and support the notion of being a global citizen and indicate a personal interest in globalization. Few, however, claim to utilize global policies such as United Nations charters with any regular frequency. Yet, there is overwhelming support for social work's role in dealing with global issues. Korean social workers can see the relevance of globalization to social work practice. Also, an overwhelming majority can see the impact that globalization has on his/her clients. 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A Chinese cultural critique of the global qualifying standards for social work education. Social Work Education, 23(5), 597-612. Terrence D. Henderson is a Canadian expatriate who has resided in Seoul, Korea for over 10 years. He is currently Director of International Affairs at Sungkyunkwan University, Korea's oldest university, founded in 1398. He has been working on the development of the university's globalization policy for the past 9 years. He is currently working on his doctoral dissertation in social welfare. He completed his MSW and BSW in Canada. He resides in Korea with his wife and two children. |